by

Ilham

Lecturer of English Dept University of Muhammadiyah Mataram

The term qualitative is defined variously by scholars. According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994) qualitative refers to the way of inquiry in which people would make effort to interpret phenomena in their natural settings. They add that qualitative research involves various empirical materials that explains the matter of phenomena and meanings in individual’s lives.

Frankel and Wallen (2007) states that qualitative are a research studies that investigate the quality or relationship, activities, situation, or materials. It emphasize on holistic description, describing in detail all of what goes on particular activity. Qualitative research refers to assumption telling that all knowledge is relative, as it is influenced by subjectivity, and is holistic (Nunan (1992).  Silverman (2005) states that qualitative research designs usually focus on small number of cases and ‘use a non-positivist model of reality’ to see more detail about social phenomena.

Creswell (1994) defines qualitative as the process of inquiry by which people try to understand a social and human problem on the basis of a complex and holistic picture, ‘formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting’. Merriam (1998) further argues that qualitative research is an umbrella concept covering several forms of inquiry that help us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena with a s little disruption of the natural setting as possible.

Regarding to definition stated above we can conclude that qualitative research is a model of inquiry or research, that focuses on the phenomena of social and human problem in natural setting, that usually focuses on a small number of cases, and that is non-positivist (does not see the cause-and-effect factor), subjective (based on researcher’s interpretation), and holistic (not value free).

II. Research Paradigms

Paradigm of research can be divided into two broad categories: non ideological and ideological (Connole, Wiseman, and Smith (1990), (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994) and Creswell (1998). Non ideological paradigm encompasses empiricism and interpretivism, while ideological involves critical approach/paradigm. Conolle (1990) defines empiricism as a broad term to explain the fact of knowledge that can be gained from experience. Under this heading (Empiricism/positivism), there are several types of research design; namely true survey, case study, experimental/quasi-experimental, ex post facto design, and analysis of data bases and records. (Emilia, 2000). Furthermore, interpretive is one kind of critique towards dissatisfactory of quantitative inquiry, which then brings about a new paradigm in research (Denzin and Lincoln in Silverman 2005)

The ideological paradigm of research consists of three major research paradigm: (1) Critical theory: A critical researcher might explore the scientific study of social institutions and their transformations through interpreting the meanings of social life; the historical problems of domination, alienation, and social struggles; and a critique of a society and the envisioning of new possibilities (Fay, 1987; Morrow & Brown, 1984) (2) Postmodernism : it emerged in the humanities in 1960s; gained momentum in 1970s; and permeated the social sciences in the 1980s and 1990s. the basic concept is that knowledge claims must be set within the conditions of the world today and in the multiple perspectives of class, race, gender, and other group affiliations; (3) Feminist approaches: the goals are to establish collaborative and nonexploitative relationship, to place the researcher within the study so as to avoid objectification.

III. Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Inquiry

Qualitative research shares the theoretical assumptions of the interpretive paradigm, which is based on the notion that social reality is created and sustained through the subjective experience of people involved in communication (Morgan,1980). Qualitative research in general is more likely to take place in a natural setting (Denzin, 1994);Lincoln and Guba, 1982; Marshall and Rossman, 2006). This means that topics for study focus on everyday activity as defined enacted, smoothed, and made problematic by person goings about their normal routines (Van Maanen, 1983, p.225).

Meanwhile, the strength of the qualitative method involves: (1) Obtaining a more realistic feel of the world that cannot be experienced in the numerical data and statistical analysis used in quantitative research; (2) flexible way to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation of collected information;(3) provide a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation, (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982); (4) ability to interact with the research subject in their own language and their own terms (Kirk and Miller, 1986);(5) descriptive capability based on primary and unstructured data.

In addition, the weaknesses of qualitative research are: (1) knowledge produces might not generalize  to other people or others setting; (2) It is difficult to make quantitative predictions; (3) it’s more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participants pools;(4) It might have lower credibility with some administrators and commissioners of programs;(5) it generally takes more tomes to collect when compared to the quantitative research; (6) data analysis is often time consuming; (7) the result are easily  influenced by the researchers’ personal biases and idiosyncrasies.

Apart from the writing above the functional or positivist paradigm that guides the quantitative mode of inquiry is based on assumption that social reality has an objective ontological structure and that individuals are responding agents to this objective environment (Morgan & Smircich, 1980). The assumption behind the positivist paradigm is that there is an objective truth exiting in the world that can be measured and explain scientifically. The main concerns of the quantitative paradigm are that measurements is reliable, valid, and generalizable in its clear prediction of cause  and effect (Cassell &Symon, 1994 in Matveev, 2002)

In short, the strength of quantitative method are; (1) stating the research problem in very specific and set terms (Frankfort-Nachmias &Nachmias, 1992 in Matveev, 2002); (2) clearly and precisely specifying both the independent and the dependent variables under investigations;(3) Following firmly the original set of research, arriving at more objective conclusion, testing hypothesis, determining the issues of causality; (4) achieving high level of reliability of gathered data due to controlled observations, laboratory experiments, mass survey, or other form of research manipulations (Balsley, 1970); (5) Eliminating or minimizing subjectivity of judgment  (Kialey & Protheroe, 1996) and allowing for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of research subjects.

The weaknesses of quantitative method include: (1) failure to provide the researcher with information on the context of situation;(2) Inability to control the environment where the respondent provide the answers to the questions in the survey; (3) limited outcomes to only those outlined in the original research proposal due to closed type questions and the structured format; (4) not encouraging the evolving and continuous investigation of research phenomenon.

IV. Data Collection

Qualitative researcher use three main techniques to collect and analyze data: observing people as they go about their daily activities and recording what they do; conducting in-depth interview with people about their ideas, their opinions, and their experiences; and analyzing documents or other forms of communication (Fraenkel and Wallen,2007). Those techniques describe as follows:

Observation

Observation is a research tool when “(1) serves a formulated research purpose, (2) is planned deliberately, (3) is recorded systematically, and (4) is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability  (Kidder,1981b,p.264 in Merriam (1994).Observation can lead to deeper understanding because it provides a knowledge of the context in which events occur, and may enable the researcher to see things that participant themselves are not aware or they are unwilling to discuss (Patton, 1990). Hammersley & Atkinson, (1995) in Creswell (1994) states that observing in a setting is a special skill that requires management of issues such as the potential deception of the people being interviewed, impression management and the potential marginality of the researcher in a strange setting. Observation entails the systematic noting and recording of events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study (Marsall and Rossman, (2006). Morris, (1973 p. 906) in Denzin and Lincoln, (1994) defines observation as the act of noting a phenomenon, often with instruments, and recording it for scientific or other purposes.

There are three kinds of observation namely participant observation, nonparticipant observation and naturalistic observation (Fraenkel and Wellen (2007). In participant observations studies, researcher usually participates in the situations or setting they are observing. Participant observation demands first hand involvement in the social world chosen for study (Marshall and Rossman, 2006; Merriam, 1998).Then, in nonparticipant observation study, researcher do not participate in the activity being observed but rather sit on the side lines and watch; they are not directly involved in  the situation they are observing. Next, naturalistic observation involves observing individuals in their natural setting (Fraenkel and Wellen,2007).

Interview

The research interview has been defined as ‘a two person conversation initiated by the interviewer for the specific purposes of obtaining research-relevant information, and focused by him on content specified by research objectives of systematic description, prediction, or explanation’ (Cannel and Kahn, 1968 in Cohen and Manion, 1994). Interview is one of the most common and most powerful ways we use to  try understand our fellow human beings (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994).Dexter (1970 p.11) in Merriam, (1998) states that interviewing is the preferred tactic of data collection in order to get better data or at least cost than other tactics. Interviewing is an important way for researcher to check the accuracy, to verify the impression  gained from observation (Fraenkel and Wellen, 2007 p.455).

There are four types of interview that maybe used specifically as research tools: the structured interview; the unstructured interview; the non-directive interview; and the focused interview (Cohen and Manion, 1994; Fraenkel and Wellen, 2007; Denzin and Lincoln, 1994; Merriam, 1998). The structured interview is one in which the content and procedure are organized in advance (Fraenkel and Wellen, 2007). It also refers to the situation in which an interviewer asks each respondent a series of preestablished questions with limited response categories (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). In contrast, the unstructured interview is an open situation, having greater flexibility and freedom. The non-directive or informal interview tends to resemble casual conversation, pursuing the interest of both the researcher and the respondent in turn. The last, the focused or retrospective interview, the researcher focuses on respondent’s subjective response o a known situation in which she has been involved and which has been analyzed by the interviewer prior to the interview.

Documentation or content analysis

Content analysis is a technique that enables researcher to study human behavior in an indirect way, through an analysis of their communication (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007).

Creswell (1994) further suggests the data collection in qualitative research steps involve (a) setting the boundaries for study, (b) collecting information through observations, interviews, documents, and visual materials, and (c) establishing the protocol for recording information. The researchers identify the parameters for data collection (Miles and Huberman, 1984): setting; the actors; the events; and the process. Then the researchers indicate the type or types of data to be collected and provide a rationale for the data collection which involve four basic types: observation, interviews, documents, and visual images. Finally, the researchers design and advance protocols for collecting information which is needed to note observation in the field.

Marshall and Rossman (2006) argue that qualitative researchers typically rely on four methods of gathering information: (a) participating in the setting, (b) observing directly, (c) interviewing in depth, and (d) analyzing documents and material culture.

IV. Data Analysis

Qualitative modes of data analysis provide ways of discerning, examining, comparing, and contrasting, and interpreting meaningful pattern or themes. Meaningfulness is determined by the particular goals and objective of the project at hand: the same data can be analyzed  and synthesized  from multiple angels depending on particular research or evaluation question being addressed. Some data analysis strategies in qualitative research including ethnographic analysis, narrative analysis, phenomenological  analysis, and the constant comparative method (Merriam, 1998).

Miles and Huberman (1994, p.10) describe the major phases of data analysis: data reduction, data display, conclusion drawing and verification. The steps discusses as follows: First, data reduction refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data that appear in written up field notes or transcription (Miles and Huberman (1994). Second, display is an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action. A display can be an extended piece of text or diagram, chart, or matrix that provides a new way of arranging and thinking about the more textually embedded data. Data display allows the analyst to extrapolate from the data enough to begin to discern systematic patterns and interrelationships. Third, conclusion drawing and verification. It involves stepping back to consider what the analyzed data mean and to access their implication for the question at hand. Verification, integrally linked to conclusion drawing, entails revisiting the data as many times as necessary to cross-check or verify these emergent conclusion (Miles and Huberman, 1994.

Bibliography

Bogdan, R and Biklen (1982) Qualitative Research for Education. Boston. Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

Cohen, L & Manion, L (1994) Research Method in Education. 4^th Edition. London. Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane

Connole, H (1993) The research enterprise. In H. Connole., B. Smith., & R. Wiseman (1993). Research methodology 1: Issues and method in research. Study Guide. Melbourne; Deakin University

Creswell. John W (1998) Qualitative inquiry and research design. USA. Sage Publications, Inc

Creswell. John W (1994) Research Design: Qualitative & Quantitative Approach. USA. Sage Publications, Inc

Denzin, N K and Yvonna S. Lincoln (1994) Handbook of Qualitative Research. USA. Sage Publications, Inc

Emilia, E. 2008. Menulis tesis dan desertasi. Bandung:Alfabeta.

Emilia, E. (2000). Research Method in Education (Hasil Pemikiran).Diktat Kuliah Mata Kuliah Qualitative Research. Universitas Pedidikan Indonesia: Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris

Emilia, E (2008) A lecture on Qualitative Research on Monday, march 25^th 2009 Bandung

Fraenkel, Jack R. and Wallen, N.E. 2007. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: Mcgraw-Hill companies Inc.

Hatch, E & Farhady, H (1982) Research Design and Statistics For applied Linguistics. USA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc

Lincoln, Y S and Guba, E G (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry. USA. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Miles, M.B and Huberman, A.M. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis. California:SAGE publications.

Marshall, C. and Rossman, G.B. 2006. Designing Qualitative Research. California;Sage Publications Inc.

Matveev, Alexei V. 2002. ‘The Advantage of Employing Quantitative and Qualitative Method in Intercultural Research: Practical Implications from the Study of the Perceptions of Intercultural Communication Competence by American and Russian Managers’. Bulletin of Russian communication.Issue 1. http://www.russcomm.ru/eng/rca_biblio/m/matvee01_eng.shtml.

Merriam, Sharan B. 1998. Qualitative Research and Case Study Application in Education.San Fransisco:Jossey-bass publishers.

Nunan, D. 1992.  Research Methods in Language Learning.  United States of America: Cambridge University Press.

Patton, M. Q. (1990).  Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods.  Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Silverman, D (2005) Doing Qualitative Research. 2^nd Edition. London: Sage Publications, Inc

by Ilham

lecturer of English Dept University of Muhammadiyah Mataram

1. What is Research Problem

A research problem is a problem that someone would like to research. A problem can be anything that a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty of some sorts, a state of affairs that need to be changed, anything that is not working as well as it might. Problems involve areas of concern to researcher, condition they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they seek to answer.

2. Selecting or Getting Ideas for Research

Finding and developing research idea is usually the first step in the research process which goals to develop valid explanation for behavior. Identify a number of sources for research ideas and offer some guidelines for developing good research questions are the main point in this part. This writing also explores, first, how to get research ideas and how they can develop into variable, testable research questions. Second, it discusses how to perform library research so that we can discover what research exists on the interest topics (Bordens and Abbots, 2008, p.53).

Selection of problem is the most difficult step in the research process. The first step in selecting a problem is to identify a general problem area that is related to your area of expertise and of particular interest to you. Choosing a topic of interest which will increase your knowledge and understanding of your particular professional area make good sense. The next step is to narrow down the general area to specific, researchable problem. A problem that is too general can only cause you grief.

The scope of the review of related literature that you must inevitably conduct will be unnecessarily increased, possibly resulting in many more hours being spent in the library. This will in turn complicate organization of the result of the review and subsequent hypothesis development. A problem that is too general tends to result in a study which is too general, includes too many variables, and produces results that are too difficult to interpret. One major way to narrow your problem is to read sources giving overviews or summaries of the current status of research in your area. In narrowing down the area you should select an aspect of the general problem area that is related to your area of expertise (Gay, 1992, p.34).

2. Sources for Research Ideas

The sources of research ideas can be falling into three broad categories: experience, theory, and applied issue.

Experience

Everyday experience and observations of what goes on around we can serve as rich sources of ideas. Some of these observations may be unsystematic, informal and also it can be systematic and formal observations.

1. Unsystematic observation

Unsystematic observation sometimes is a good way to discover a general research idea. Given your casual observations, you may decide to study a particular issue. For example your question about coping with the terrorism may lead you to some general questions about the factors that cause terrorism. We may decide to focus  our research on one or two variables that we believe strongly associated with those decisions like focus the research on the attitude that underlie terrorism and how religion and terrorism relate.

One of the most potent sources of research ideas is the curiosity about the causes or determinants of common place, everyday behavior.It is only a starting point. We still must transform our casual observations into a form that can be tested empirically.

2. systematic observation

1. Available from several resources, systematic observation can be a fruitful source of research ideas. One source is focused observation of real-world behavior. For example what led up to Piaget’s grand theory by developing the most comprehensive theory of cognitive development in existence. Second valuable source of systematic observation is published research reports. Instead of observing behavior firsthand, you read about other firsthand observations from researchers. Published research offers an almost limitless source of systematic observation of both human and animal behavior made under well-defined conditions. Another potent source of research ideas is your own previous or ongoing research. Unexpected observation made during the course of the project or the need to test the generality of finding   can be the basis for further research. Finally, you may able to et some research ideas by perusing research projects being run on the internet.

Theory

Theory is set of assumptions about the causes of behavior and rules that specify how those causes act. Designed to account for known relationships among given variables and behavior, theories generate new research questions through deductive reasoning. A scientific theory can be a potent source for research ideas.

Theories can lead to the development of research questions in two ways. First, a theory allows you to predict the behavior expected under new combinations of variables. For example, terror management theory (Solomon, Greenberg, &Psyzczynski, 1991) suggests that human beings acknowledge that they live in an uncertain, often unpredictable world and that our existence could end at any moment. According to the theory we become aware, get scared and experience “terror”. The theory also predicts that we develop a variety of strategies to cope with our mortality as a way of managing the terrors. The second way that theory can generate research ideas arises when two or more alternatives theories account for the same initial observations. This situation may provide a fascinating opportunity to pit the different interpretations against one another. If the alternatives are rigorously specified and mutually exclusive, they may lead to different predictions about what will be observed under new set of conditions. In this case, a single experiment or observations may be enough to provide strong support for one alternative over another.

An example of this source for research ideas is the different accounts for attitude change provided by cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) and self perception theory (BEM, 1972). Cognitive dissonance theory maintains that when there is inconsistency between our attitudes and our behavior, a negative motivational state called cognitive dissonance arises. In contrast, self-perception theory states that dissonance is not necessary for attitude change. Instead, the theory states that we learn about our motives by observing and evaluating our own behavior.

Applied Issues

Applied research is problem oriented and might be designed to develop strategies  to help people cope with terrorism. Before designing any intervention, you must fist know something about how people react to terrorism

Characteristic of Research Question

Good research question is possess four essential characteristics as stated by Fraenkel and Wallen (2007, p.29).They are as follows:

1. The question is feasible (i.e. it can be investigated without an undue of time, energy, or money
2. The question is clear (i.e. most people would agree as to what the key words in the question mean).
3. The question is significant (i.e. it is worth investigating because it will contribute important knowledge about the human condition).
4. The question is ethical (i.e. it will not involve physical opr psychological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural or social environment of which they are part.

DEVELOPING GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This section describes how to identify good research questions and suggest what kind of questions are likely to be important.

Asking Answerable Questions

The first step in developing a workable research project is to ask the kind of questions that can be answered by using scientific method. The steps are:

1. Asking Empirical questions

Empirical question is a question that can be answered by objective observation. To be objective, an observation must be made under precisely defined conditions, must be reproducible when those same conditions are present again and must be confirmable by others.

Some question seems to be empirical but are formulated too broadly to make appropriate observations. Consider the following example of such questions: Do children raised in permissive atmosphere? How it is to be measured? Precisely what does it mean to lack-self-discipline, and how do we determine when self- discipline is present or absent? Until you can specify exactly what these terms mean and how to measure the variables they represent, you cannot answer the original question.

2.Operationally defining variables

An operational definition involves defining a variable in terms of the operations require to measure it. Defining variables allows you to measures precisely the variables that you include  in your study and to determine whether a relationship exist between them.

Asking Important Questions

A question is probably important if answering it will clarify relationship among variables known to affect the behavioral system under study. In addition, a question is probably important if the answer can support only of the several competing models or theoretical views. Finally, a question is probably important if its answer leads to obvious practical application.

When you have identified your research idea, the next step is  to develop it to the point  at which you can specify testable hypotheses and define the specific methods to be used to test the hypotheses. This step is accomplished by identifying and familiarizing yourself with research already conducted in your area of interest  and is called “reviewing the literature.

DEVELOPING RESEARCH IDEAS: REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

One of the most important preliminary steps in the research process is doing a through review of the scientific literature on the topic that you have identified for study.

Reason for reviewing the Scientific Literature

A literature review is the process of locating, obtaining, reading, and evaluating the research literature in your area of interest. There are several important reasons for conducting a literature review: 1) to avoid needless duplication of effort. No matter what topic you choose, chances are that someone has already done on it. By becoming familiar with that area through a literature review, you can avoid “reinventing the wheel.” Your specific research questions may have already been addressed and answered. To the contrary, , your literature review may reveal other questions that remain to be answered. By familiarizing yourself with existing research and theory in an area, you can revise your research project to explore some of these newly identified questions; 2) to design phase of your research. Designing a study involves several decisions as to what variables to include and how to measure them, what material or apparatus to use, what procedures to use,etc;3) Keep you up to date  on current empirical or theoretical controversies in a particular research areas.

Sources of Research Information

1. From Popular writing such as that found in magazines such as Newsweek may provide more reliable information that has been gleaned from scientific sources, but the information presented generally lacks the detail that would allow you to determine much beyond the major conclusion offered. More substantive writing aimed at a better –educated reader generally provides  more details about the method used to gather information but still omits important details and may not mention alternatives interpretations or other evidence for or against the  conclusion presented.

Sources of research findings include books, scholarly journals, convention and professional meetings, and others such as personal communications and certain pages of on the World Wide Web. Here are few things you should know about these sources.

1. Primary versus secondary sources

A primary source is one containing the full research report, including all details necessary to duplicate the study. A primary sources includes the description  of the rationale of the study, its participant or subjects, materials or apparatus, procedures, result and references. A secondary source is one that summarizes information from primary sources. Secondary sources of research include review papers and theoretical articles that briefly  describe studies and results, as well as description of research found in textbooks, popular magazines, newspaper articles, etc.

To summarize, use secondary sources, as a starting point in your literature search. Avoid over reliance on secondary sources and make every effort to obtain the primary sources of interest to you that have been cited in a secondary source. Only by reading the primary source can you critically evaluate a study and determine whether the reported results are reliable and important. Finally do not rely on secondary source. The author of reviewed article may not have completely reviewed the literature.

2. Books

You are probably most familiar with general textbooks or text covering content areas. The article in an anthology maybe original works and thus can be treated as primary sources-provided that they have been reproduced exactly, not edited for anthology. Be careful about relying on a chapter reproduced from a book. Isolating a single chapter from the original book can be misleading. In other chapters from the same books, the original author may elaborate on points made in the reproduced chapter. You could miss important points if you do not read the original work. It would be well advised to seek out recent research on the issues covered in the book.

3. Scholarly Journals

For current research and theories regarding a subject, researchers turn to scholarly journals.

4. Conventions and professional meeting

If you attend one of convention and professional meeting , you would find a number of sessions covering different areas of research.

5. Other sources of research Information

Dissertation and theses completed by graduate students are source of information. The internet provides yet another source of research information. You can find journal articles, technical report, and original papers, and so on via online search.

Reference

Bordens, K.S. and Abbott, B.C. 2008. Research Design and Method. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gay.L.R. 1992. Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Application. United States of America: Macmillan publishing company.

Cohen,L. and Manion, L. 1994. Research Method in Education (fourth Edition). USA: Routledge.

Fraenkel and Wallen. 2007. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

by Ilham

Lecturer of English Dept University of Muhammadiyah Mataram

Choosing an appropriate research design is crucial important to the success of your project. The decision that you make at this stage of the research process  do much to determine the quality of the conclusions that you can draw from your research results. This writing involves the problem that you must face when choosing a research design, introduces the major types of research design and describe how each type attempts to solve.

Function of a Research Design

Scientific studies tend to focus one or the other of two major activities. The first activity consist of exploratory data collection and analysis, which is aimed at classifying behaviors within a given area of research, identifying potentially important variables, and identifying relationships between those variables and the behaviors. The second activity, called hypothesis testing, consists of evaluating potential explanations for the observed relationship. Testable explanations allow you to predict what relationship should and should not be observed if the explanation is correct.

Causal Versus Correlational Relationships

In causal relationship, one variable directly or indirectly influences another. In other words, changes in the value of one variable directly or indirectly cause changes in the value of a second. Causal relationships can be unidirectional, in which case variable A influences variable B but not vice versa. They also can be bidirectional in which case each variable influence the other.

In a correlational relationship, changes in one variable accompany changes in another, but the proper test have not been conducted to show that either variable actually influences the other. When changes in one variable tend to be accompanied by specific changes in another, the two variables are said to covary.

Correlational Research

Correlational research belong to a broader category called non-experimental research, which also includes design not specifically aimed at identifying relationships between variables. Correlational research involves observing the values of two or more variables and determining what relationship exist between them. In correlational research, you make no attempt to manipulate variables but observe them “ as is”.

In their simplest form, correlational studies investigate the possibility of relationships between only two variables, although investigations of more than two variables are common. In contrast to experimental research, however, there is no manipulation of variables in correlational research.

Correlational research is also sometimes referred to as a form of descriptive rerserach because it describes an existing relationship between variables. The way it describes the relationship, however, it quite different from the description found in other types of studies. A correlational study describes the degree to which two or more quantitaives variables are related, and it does so by using a correlation coefficient.

When correlation is found to exist between two variables, it means that scores within a certain range on one variable are associated with scores within a certain range on the other variable. You will recall that positive correlation means high scores on one variable tend to be associated with high score on the other variable, while low scores on one are associated with low scores on the other. A negative correlation, on other hand, means high score on one variable are associated with low scores on other variable, and low score on one are associated with high score on the other (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007).

Why Use Correlational Research

There are three situations in which a correlational approach makes good sense:

1. gathering data in the early stages of research. During the initial, exploratory stage of a research project, the correlational approach’s ability to identify potential causal relationships can provide a reach source of hypotheses that later may be tested experimentally.
2. In ability to manipulate Variables. In an experimental design, variables are manipulated to determine their affect on other variables. A second reason for choosing a correlational design over an experimental one is that manipulating the variables of interest  may be impossible or unethical.
3. Relating Naturally occurring variables. Correlational research design may be chosen over an experimental design is one in which you want to see how naturally occurring variables relate in the real word. Such information can be used to make useful predictions even if the reasons for the discovered relationships are not clear. High school GPA, scores on the SAT, class rank, and scores on the Nelson-Denny Reading comprehension test correlate well with each other and with performance in college. Knowledge of these relationships has been used to predict college success. Certain theoretical views also may lead to prediction about which real word variables should be correlated with which.

Reference

Bordens, K.S. and Abbott, B.C. 2008. Research Design and Method. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cohen,L. and Manion, L. 1994. Research Method in Education (fourth Edition). USA: Routledge.

Fraenkel and Wallen. 2007. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Gay.L.R. 1992. Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Application. United States of America: Macmillan publishing company.

A CASE STUDY RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

by Ilham*

* The author is a lecturer of FKIP Universitas Muhammadiyah Mataram

Case study is defined as “a study of single case or bounded system” (Stake 1985; Connole, 1993 (“whether simple and specific,…or abstract and complex” (Stake, 1985,p.278). A case study is an examination of a specific phenomenon such as program, an event, a person, a process, an institution, or a social group (Merriam, 1988).So , case study designs “can range from small projects carried out by single researcher…on a self-funded basis to larger and most costly projects carried out by a team of researchers, occasionally over a period of up to fifteen years. The number of case study can range from one to hundreds…”(Hakim, 1985,p.73).

As it is defined, a case study approach allowed me to study only a small scale and single case, which definitely benefited me do to the limited time that I had and the limited number of participants that could be involved in my research. However the small scale research conducted under case study design, does not mean that the research is superficial. Case study allowed to study in-depth or “down to earth” (Cohen&Manion, 1985).

With the small scale of the study, a case study enable me to obtain in-depth information that I need about the topic. Connole(1993,p.64) says” the essential feature of a case study is the level of depth it can over in researching all illustrative example of some phenomenon”. In addition, Cohen and Manion(1985, p.146) write that “case study data is strong in reality,…because case studies are down to earth and attention holding…”A case study can provide a richly detailed portrait of a particular social phenomenon” (Hakim, 1987, p.61).

In short, “the greatest advantage of a case study is the possibility of depth, in that it attempts to understand the whole subjects or participant in the totality of the environment. Not only their present actions, their past,…their emotions, their thoughts can be probed”(Ary, et al, 1972, P.87).

Another reason was that case studies are typically based on two or more methods of data collection, as stated by Connole (1993): “Case study uses and in –depth study of a single or restricted number of cases using a variety of data-gathering methods”(p.95). This use of multiple sources of data allows case studies to present more rounded and complete. account of social issues and processes. The use of multiple sources of evidence makes the case study one of the most powerful research design”(Hakim, 1987,p.63).

Characteristics of Case Study

1. Particularistic, means that case studies focus on a particular situation, event, program, or phenomenon. Case studies “concentrate attention on the way of particular groups of people confront specific problems, taking a holistic view of the situation. They are problem centered, small scale, entrepreneurial endeavors” (Shaw, 1978, p.2).
2. Descriptive means that the end product of case study is rich’ “thick” description of phenomenon under study. Thick description is a term from anthropology and means the complete, literal description of the incident or entity being investigated.
3. Heuristic means that case studies illuminate the reader’s understanding of the phenomenon under study. The can bring about the discovery of new meaning, extend the reader’s experience, or confirm what is known.
4. Inductive means that, for the most part, case studies rely on inductive reasoning. Generalizations, concepts, or hypothesis emerge from an examination of data-data grounded in the context itself.

Oslaon (in Hoaglin and others, 1982,pp.138-139 cited in Marriam, 1988) has develop a list of case study characteristics that may illuminate the nature of this research design. Three statements reflect the case study’s particularistic nature are:

• It can suggest to the reader what to do in a similar situation.
• It can examine a specific instance but illuminate a general problem.
• It may or may not be influenced by author’s bias.

Several aspects of case study listen by Olson address its descriptive nature:

• It can illustrate the complexities of a situation-the fact that not one but many factors contributed it.
• It has the advantages of hindsight yet can be relevant in the present
• It can show the personalities on the issue
• It can show the influence of the passage of time on the issue-deadlines, change of legislators, cessation of funding.
• It can include vivid material-quotations, interviews, newspaper articles.
• It can obtain information from a wide variety of sources
• It can cover many years and describe how the preceding decades led to a situation.
• It can spell out differences of opinion on the issue and suggest how these differences have influenced the result.
• It can present information in a wide variety of ways…and from the viewpoints of different groups.

The heuristic quality of case study is suggested by these aspects:

• It can explain the reason for a problem, the background of a situation, what happened and why.
• It can explain why an innovation worked or failed to work.
• It can discuss and evaluate alternatives not chosen.
• It can evaluate, summarize, and conclude, thus increasing its potential applicability.

Stake(1981 in Marriam, 1988) claims that the uniqueness of a case study is knowledge from case study is different from other research knowledge in four important ways. Case study knowledge is:

• More concrete-case study knowledge resonates with our own experience because it is more vivid, concrete and sensory than abstract.
• More contextual-our experiences are rooted in context, as is knowledge in case studies
• More developed by reader interpretation-reader bring to a case study their own experience and understanding, which lead to generalizations when new data for the case are added to old data.
• Based more on reference populations determined by the reader.

Types of Case Study and Uses of Case Study Research in Education

Stake (200:437-8) has identified three different types of case study:

1. The intrinsic case study where ‘this case is of interest…in all its particularity and ordinariness’. In the intrinsic case study, no attempt is made to generalize beyond the single case or even to build the theories.
2. The instrumental case study in which a case is examined mainly to provide insight into an issue or to revise generalization. Although the case selected is studied in depth, the main focus is on something else.
3. The collective case study where a number of cases are studied in order to investigate some general phenomenon.

In addition, Marriam (1988, p.23) states several types of case study research:

1. An ethnography case study. It is sociocultural analysis of the unit of the study. Wolcott (1980) distinguishes sharply between the techniques of ethnography and the ethnographic account it self: ”Specific ethnographic techniques are freely available to any researcher who wants to approach a problem or setting descriptively: It is the essential anthropological concern for cultural context.
2. Historical case study. It employs techniques common to historiography-in particular, the use of primary source material. Historical case studies may involve more than a chronological history of an event and the notion of investigating of the phenomenon over period of time.
3. Psychological case study, investigates some aspect of human behavior.
4. Sociological case study attends to construct of society   and socialization in studying educational phenomena.
5. descriptive case study presents a detailed account of phenomenon under study-a historical case study that chronicles a sequence of events.
6. interpretive case studies, contain rich, thick description. Descriptive data are used to develop conceptual categories or to illustrate, support, or challenge theoretical assumptions held prior to the data gathering.
7. Evaluative case studies involve description, explanation, and judgment.

When to Use a Case Study Design

Kenny and Grotelueschen (1980 in Marriam, 1988) suggest that several “preconditions” can help the researcher decide on the appropriateness of using case study: First, case study can be considered when “the desired or projected objectives of an educational effort focus on humanistic outcomes or cultural differences, as opposed to behavioral outcomes or individual differences. Second, it is also appropriate  when information gleaned from participants is not subject to truth or falsity but can be subject to scrunity on the grounds of credibility.

Strengths and Limitation of Case Studies

Adelman et al. (1976 cited in Nunan, 1992) suggest that there are six principal advantages of adopting the case study as a method of research. They are as follows:

1. it is strong in reality and therefore likely to appeal to practitioners, who will be able to identify with the issues and concern raised.
2. They claim that one can generalize from a case, either from an instance, or from an instance to a class.
3. It can represent a multiplicity of   viewpoints and can offer support to alternative interpretation.
4. case study also provide a data base of materials which may be interpreted by future researchers.
5. The insight yielded by case studies can be put to immediate use for a variety of purposes, including staff development, within-institution feedback, formative evaluation and educational policy making.
6. Case study data are usually more accessible than conventional research report, and therefore capable of serving multiple audiences.

Marriam(1998) further explain the strengths and limitation of case study as follows:

1. Case study is the best plan for answering the research question; its strengths outweigh its limitation. The case study offers a means of investigating complex social units consisting of multiple variables of potential importance in understanding the phenomenon.
2. Case study is particularly appealing design for applied fields of study such as education. Educational process, problems and programs can be examined  to bring about understanding that in turn can affect and perhaps even improve practice.
3. It is useful for studying educational innovations, for evaluating programs, and for informing policy.

Guba and Lincoln (1981, p.377) note the limitations of case study:

1. Case study can oversimplify or exaggerate a situation, leading the reader to erroneous conclusion about the actual state of affair.
2. Qualitative study is limited by the sensitivity and integrity of the investigator. The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and data analysis. The investigator is left to rely on his or her own instinct  and abilities through out most of this research effort.
3. Case study evaluation refers to unusual problems of ethics. An unethical case writer could so select from among available data that virtually anything he wished could be illustrated (p.378).Both the readers of case studies and the authors themselves need to be aware of  biases that can affect  the final product
4. The issues of reliability, validity, and generalizability. As Hamel(1993, p.23) observes…..the case study has basically been faulted for its lack of representativeness…and its lack of rigor in the collection, construction, and analysis of the empirical materials that give rise to the study.

Summary

Case study can be defined in terms of the process of conducting the inquiry (case study research), the bounded system or unit of analysis selected for study, or the product, the end report of a case investigation. Further qualitative case studies are particularistic, descriptive and heuristic. Because a case study has these attributes, a researcher might choose this approach to illuminate a phenomenon. Case study can also be understood in term of their strengths and limitations in form of qualitative research.

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